Medieval Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Crusaders, or, Germany, Italy and Palestine from AD1125 to AD1268in 4 volumes. 1854 1856. by Mrs William Busk. The 12th century was characterized by significant political fragmentation and power struggles in Europe, particularly between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. Italy experienced a division of authority, with the Normans asserting control over Apulia and the Papal States facing challenges from the emperors. The Crusades led to the conquest of Jerusalem, resulting in substantial loss of life and the